The conservation management plan set out in the following pages addresses the major problems facing Banteay Chhmar and presents them as a three-phase project outlining the specific resources, work teams, time frames, and budgets required for the proposed project.

• Phase One: will concentrate on setting up the Banteay Chhmar Conservation Unit, developing a prototypical system for the reconstruction and conservation of the famed bas-relief galleries which have for the most part collapsed. The conservation and repair programme will require the consolidation or recreation of foundations, the repair and reassembly of the stone galleries, and clearing stones to provide access to the bas-relief sections. This phase will also include all the setting up procedures basic site clearance and emergency consolidation.
  
  
• Phase Two: will focus on the central temple complex, which requires stabilization and the provision of structural support for the walls, and towers. The plan also proposes opening up axial passageways to create safe routes for visitors through the temple site. One alternative under review is to create a skywalk about ten metres above ground level hanging a pathway form suspended cables.
  
  
• Phase Three: will concentrate on the control of tree and vegetation growth found throughout the overgrown temple site. A specific management plan will be drawn up to assess and prioritize the trees that are most likely to damage the site, and action will be taken that will still retain the feel and character of the site.

King Jayavarman Vll from Bas-Relief Enclosure Wall lll East

Back to top

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A Brief Synopsis

King: Jayavarman VII (1181- 1218 or 1220)

Date: 2nd half of 12th Century

Religion: Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, Ancestor Worship

Dedicated to: Son of Jayavarman VII (Srindrakumara), and 4 priests or generals

Location: Northwest Cambodia, part of the village and sub district of Banteay Chhmar, Thma Pourk district, Banteay Mencheay province: 30km West of the Dangrek Mountains; 165km Northwest of Angkor; 465km from Phnom Penh.

Historical and Religious Significance
Banteay Chhmar is one of several remote temple complexes belonging to the ancient Angkorian Empire, which was one of the most powerful empires between the 8th and the 15th centuries A.D. It was constructed in the second half of the 12th Century under the reign of Angkor’s most powerful king, Jayavarman VII, who was involved in a massive and ambitious concurrent building program in Angkor where he was either constructing or remodelling the Bayon temple complex, the five entrance gates to Angkor Thom, the Buddhist monastic temple complexes of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan, as well as the Palace Complex at the centre of Angkor Thom.

The vast temple complex of Banteay Chhmar which formerly covered an area of 12.5 square kilometres including the adjacent reservoir (Baray) is located in the North West of Cambodia near the present border with Thailand. Although ostensibly, a Buddhist temple, different shrines and complexes within Banteay Chhmar were simultaneously dedicated to Hindu divinities and to the practice of ancestor worship, following a pattern common at that time in the historic city of Angkor. When Hinduism returned to the empire as the state religion, following the death of the king, unlike elsewhere in the Khmer Kingdom where iconoclasm was rife, the images, sculptures and statues of the Buddha in Banteay Chhmar were not destroyed.

Much of the historic knowledge of Banteay Chhmar is based on inscriptions inscribed on the stone door jambs, providing one of the few sources of historical evidence remaining in the majority of the Khmer temples. Inscriptions typically include information concerning the consecration and use of temples, and often include names and information about the king and the state of the kingdom, as well as details of the practices of Hinduism which was at the time the state religion. Epigraphers Georges Coedès, Christina Hawixbrock, and R.C. Majumdar have translated several of the fourteen Khmer inscriptions found at Banteay Chhmar. The inscriptions written in an old Khmer script vary considerably in length and the theory that the temple is dedicated to Jayavarman’s dead son, the crown prince, Srindrakumara, is based on one of such inscriptions. The same inscription also mentions the death of the king’s paternal grandmother, Rajapatindralakshmi, on her endowed land, which has helped to place the construction of the temple to a date between 1186 and 1191. Banteay Chhmar’s construction therefore coincides with Jayavarman VII’s construction of his other great Buddhist monastic complexes in Angkor of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan.

Although members of the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient (EFEO) surveyed Banteay Chhmar in the mid 20th Century, and studied its inscriptions, they undertook neither conservation and repair work nor any excavations at that time. The temple was engulfed by the forest leaving it in a wildly overgrown state, much as it is today. Because of its relatively isolated location the Banteay Chhmar temple complex saw much of the recent heavy fighting between the Khmer Rouge and government forces in the 1990s and as a result the temple complex it has been prey to extensive looting, vandalism, and destruction.

Banteay Chhmar was placed on WMF’s World Monuments Watch list in 1998 - a list of 100 endangered cultural heritage sites around the world, which are reviewed every two years to assess achievements in protection and conservation. This listing proved sadly prophetic as in January of 1999, looters dismantled two large sections of the western gallery wall containing superb bas-reliefs of multi-armed Avalokitesvaras, unique in this form to Banteay Chhmar and made off with them in a low-loader truck. Fortunately the 177 sandstone pieces were quickly recovered in Thailand and eventually returned to Cambodia, where they are now on display in Phnom Penh’s National Museum.

Back to top

DESCRIPTION OF BANTEAY CHHMAR TEMPLE COMPLEX
Banteay Chhmar was originally a large city, delineated by a moat and a series of four enclosure walls. The outer, earthen embankment (the fourth enclosure) defining the city which is now difficult to discern, is said by EFEO Scholars, G. Groslier and J. Bosselier, to have originally measured 4 km x 4 km square. It is interesting to compare the size of Banteay Chhmar with some of the larger temples in the Angkor complex. For example the overall dimension of the Angkor Thom complex measures 3 km x 3 km; The Angkor Wat compound measures 1,000 m by 800 m. Preah Khan temple complex in Kampong Svay which is the largest of all the Khmer Temple complexes, measures 5 km x 5 km.

An unusual feature in Banteay Chhmar which typically has a wide moat enclosing the temple complex is the presence of an enormous Reservoir (Baray) measuring 700 m x 1500 m. This Baray, which cuts into the outer enclosure wall, extends eastwards from the main temple. A west-facing landing stage runs along the town’s east entrance.

There are several temples associated with Banteay Chhmar nearby, including the Mebon temple on an island in the centre of the ancient Baray. On the outskirts of the present town there are eight shrines, each with carved faces, within single or double enclosures, but none as yet has yielded an inscription. These small temples were scattered around the interior of the ancient city.

Similar to nearly all temples of the Bayon style constructed in the late 12th Century, Banteay Chhmar is oriented on an East-West axis. The main temple complex is located within the space defined and delineated by an outer moat and a series of enclosure walls. As with most (but not all) Khmer temples, the main entrance is from the East. A wide, stone, paved causeway crosses the 65-meter wide moat encircling the temple complex. The causeway was originally flanked by statues of Devas (gods) and Asuras (divinities and demons) carrying the giant Naga (snake), signifying its status as a Royal Temple, but most of these magnificent stone sculptures have been stolen. True to its Khmer desire for symmetry, four Causeways cross the moat on the cardinal points giving access to the temple complex.

The causeways lead to four sandstone gateways (gopuras), most of which have collapsed except for a section of the East Gopura, which is still standing. Identifiable features which include “false windows” characteristic of the Bayon style, where the window frame is carved and flanked by Apsara figures, are prominent in the temple complex. The seated images of meditating Buddhas carved into niches are similar to those found at the gates of Angkor Thom, while the Garuda decorations in the corners can be compared to those in the temples of Banteay Kdei and Ta Prohm, in Angkor.

A dharmasala (rest house) known often as the shrine of the “Sacred Flame” (Agni), is located along the eastern axial path approaching the main temple complex. This single structure is characteristic of many Khmer freestanding structures, and similar to 121 others built by Jayavarman VII throughout his empire, possibly as rest houses or for the benefit of pilgrims on ritual journeys. The Dharmasala at Banteay Chhmar, however, was not mentioned, like the others, on the stele of Preah Khan, leading some scholars to theorize that it was constructed at a later date. The Dharmasala is oriented east to west with south-facing windows. Two laterite tanks are located to the north and to the west, the larger of which contains water all year round.

A rectangular Enclosure Wall measuring 250 metres by 190 meters containing the celebrated bas-reliefs encloses the principal religious complex. As at the Bayon, the friezes mainly depict battle scenes on land and water, but there are also illustrations of obscure legends. The west gallery originally contained a remarkable sequence of eight large Lokesvara, depicting the Mahayana Buddhist deity with anywhere from four to thirty-two arms, and one to sixteen heads. Following the looting, serious damage was done to the fabric of Banteay Chhmar, jeopardizing the integrity of the site, and highlighting the urgent need for its protection and conservation.

The central temple complex itself has mostly collapsed. It consists of a collection of temple shrines or towers, enclosure walls, and individual structures. Within the Enclosure Wall III there are also a series of water tanks. Laterite enclosure walls connect the Gopuras and enclose the temple complex. Three enclosure walls subdivide the temple, with images of meditating Buddhas cresting the walls. A Hall of Dancers, similar in orientation and layout to those of Preah Khan and Ta Prohm in Angkor precedes the main grouping of structures along the east-west axial path. The central group of structures is in the shape of a long rectangle measuring 170m x 40m, and appears to have been dedicated to the Buddha. Some of the towers still retain the four faces, charateristic of the Bayon style, adorning each façade; whilst other towers are largely un-decoraed. Sepearte shrines and temples to the North, West and South were probably dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and to Bramah or "ancestor worship". As in many of Angkor’s temples, there is evidence of later expansions to the temple. Many of the sandstone blocks used in the temple’s construction appear to have be recycled from earlier structures, which along with the temple complex’s ruinous condition make it difficult to fully understand the chronology of Banteay Chhmar’s construction.

A Tower Shrine Central Shrine Complex

Back to top

PRESENT STATUS OF BANTEAY CHHMAR
Current Site Conditions
A Preliminary assessment of the structural condition of the Banteay Chhmar temple structures was carried in 2004 out by a team from the WMF office in Siem Reap which gave a broad understanding of the status of the temple structures at that time. Comparing the present rapid assessment, it appears that several structures have furthercollapsed. Nevertheless, in order to update the condition survey much of this information needs to be checked in greater detail to develop a realistic work plan.

In its present state the Banteay Chhmar temple complex constitutes a real danger to visitors and local people who are generally oblivious to the structural instability of the stonework. The temple complex is overgrown with vegetation and many areas are in danger of imminent collapse. Sections of the outer enclosure walls are no longer structurally sound and are in need of urgent temporary support to prevent further collapse. In September 2003 the South Western Tower within the second enclosure wall collapsed causing irreparable damage, and there are several other sections within the temple would have followed suit had not some emergency temporary supports been put in place. The majority of the remaining towers are in a treacherous state; the roof vaults for the most part have fallen in and in most cases there is a pile of stones about 3 meters deep covering the ground.

Causes for Deterioration
The reasons for decay are extensive and in many cases typical only for a particular structure. In several cases in other temple complexes Hindu iconoclasm caused structural damage as Buddhist images were destroyed thus weakening the structures and opening them to the ravages of the weather and the subsequent invasion of plants and trees. However, the most uniform and universal is structural failure mainly caused by the lack of maintenance and the ensuing sub-tropical jungle that takes over the temple sites. Fast growing trees take root on the structures and slowly prise them apart. Diverse climatic and environmental effects and the more recent damage caused by looting render these sites as spectacular partial ruins.

Climate: Heavy rainfall and inadequate drainage can cause displacement of foundations which in turn will create instability and often collapse due to the poor original methods of construction. It also encourages the rapid growth trees such as the Tetrameles Nudiflora, better known as the “Fromagere”. Environmental elements such as fluctuating temperatures as much as C 20deg in a day ; moisture in the form of humidity, rain and groundwater; wind and sunshine all affect the component materials of the temple and the thus the stability of the complex.

Vegetation: The vegetation is currently unchecked and flourishes throughout the complex, particularly around the outer Enclosure Wall III. Whilst this growth obscures the view of the bas-reliefs and affects the access route, it is easily removable of the walls. The trees in the surrounding jungle however, pose the most serious threat. The rapid growth of the “Fromagere” which from a seed germinates usually on the roofs of the stone structures and within the ten years the roots are prising open the joints and damaging the structure. Trees growing on and in the compound of the temple complex add to the collapse of the structures. When the structures fall they tend to block the rain water drainage system causing the foundation to deteriorate. Also these massive trees tend to shed their hanger branches causing serious damage to the structures below.

Termite Mounds: An unexpected cause of damage is the presence of termite nests. The termites do not damage the stonework. However, they prefer to live in cool surroundings and therefore tend to build their mounds close to stonewalls or even in small shrines. The termites get between stones and even structures and the process of construction causes structures to shift and eventually fail. They often remove the earth from below the foundations causing serious structural settlement.

Vandalism: As Banteay Chhmar temple was located in a war zone and a long-term battlefield, during the recent civil war, the area has been subject to widespread looting of cultural property such as statues, steles, sections of the bas-reliefs, lintels, and frontons, the Naga balustrade, and divinities and demons on the causeways of all the four entrances. This has caused serious damage to the integrity of the temples and in many cases the action of removing carved lintels, pilasters or sections of frontons causes structural collapse.

Rapid Assessment
In order to prepare this proposal, site visits have been undertaken to assess the present condition of the Banteay Chhmar site. These assessments have been checked against those prepared by the WMF teams visiting Banteay Chhmar between 2001 and 2003. It was evident that only minor maintenance work had been carried out resulting from separate missions by the MCFA. These activities were focussed on the East Enclosure Wall III where a section of the fallen stonework has been cleared and referenced. Some structural danger zones have been temporarily shored up. Also a section of the moat has been cleared.

Structural Assessment
Based on the recent field investigations, it appears there are many cases where structural failure is imminent. At the time of construction, towers were constructed with little or no bonding which caused the structures to loose cohesiveness; shallow or non existent foundations have resulted in differential settlement and both these conditions have over the centuries caused instability. Fractured lintels and incorrectly bedded stonework, especially columns with undersized girths, are the principle causes for collapsed sections of stonework. Once a structural element reaches breaking point, it causes collapse and often the extent of damage will be exponential.

Materials Assessment
Sandstone: The sandstone is of a similar quality to that found in the Khulen Hills North of Angkor and it is assumed that the stone was probably procured from a similar quarry. As in Angkor, the stonework is laid dry – there is no mortar between the joints – in diverse patterns of coursing. There appears to be no logic as to the placement of the stone blocks. All stones are placed in their final position in the structure and later where decoration is required the stones are sculpted in situ. This was the process used to sculpt the fine bas-reliefs.

Sculptural Decoration: Several of the surfaces of the structures including the towers have been decorated with fine sculptural decoration. The towers contain large images of heads whether of Brahma, a Boddisatva, or Jayavarman VII himself, is still a point of great academic debate. On either side of doorways, guardians have also been sculpted; and flanking most windows, beautifully sculpted female divinities are to be seen. It appears that the stone mason’s lack of experience during the period of building meant that the craftsmen knew little about the quality of stone and the way it should be laid. Whereas on the other hand how they achieved the cutting and sculpting the stonework is still a mystery today.

The Banteay Chhmar Bas-Reliefs: Perhaps the most significant artefact in the temple was the extensive bas relief found in the outer vaulted gallery which if put end to end would stretch nearly one kilometre. Following the temple's abandonment, and the invasion of the sub-tropical jungle, the vaults protecting these bas-reliefs and, in most cases, the bas-reliefs themselves have collapsed with most of the decorated stonework hidden from view. Due to its exposure to heavy monsoons over several centuries and later looting for its artefacts, the sandstone structures and artwork have suffered severe degradation and damage.

Laterite: The source of laterite is often in the moats and barays around the temples. It is considered a cheap and locally available stone suitable for foundations and walls. It has a textured yellow apperance from the oxide it contains. It is a strong and dense stone but tends to fail if continually wet and dry and often where it is used in foundations it tends to fail. In Banteay Chhmar it has been used for the construction of some of the inner enclosure walls.

Multi Armed Avaloketesvara Bas-Relief Enclosure Wall ll South

Back to top

FIELD SURVEYS UNDERTAKEN
Measured Drawings
During the period when the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient (EFEO) was active in Banteay Chhmar, a set of plans was drawn up of the temple complex and its surroundings. Whilst the plans for the western sector of the temple complex appear to be reasonably accurate, the layout of the eastern sector is incorrect. The site plan when checked was also very inaccurate. During the WMF mission the site plan was checked using GPS and the major errors were partially rectified.

Environmental Assessment
The natural environment around Banteay Chhmar is relatively intact, with mature trees that offer good habitat for birds, as well as shade providing a quiet and serene experience for the visitor. There is a great variety of different tree species to be found ranging from the ever present Tetrameles Nudiflora to the Dipterocarpus Elatus the most valued trees in the forest used for construction. The forest also contains many trees and shrubs used locally as medicines – the seed of the Strycnosis Nux Vomica used as a prophylactic against malaria and is a source of income there.

Other than a hazardous tree risk map, there has been no formal research carried out on forest environment around the temple. However, it is well known that the Banteay Chhmar region supports many mammal and bird species with significant populations of rare and endangered species. Banteay Chhmar temple stands in a relatively undisturbed and healthy tropical forest. With the exception of the large trees, the forest is a single age re-growth forest contributing significantly to the biodiversity values of this region. It also has great aesthetic value, providing a beautiful setting for the temple and enhancing the visitors’ experience of the site.

Archaeological Assessment
There is no record that Banteay Chhmar temple has undergone any major restoration in recent history times. All the stonework is original giving the temple a high research value especially for architectural, archaeological and social research values. The site has the potential of answering important questions about Khmer history as well as its different stages of construction which will reveal more about its architectural and historic development, and about its religious evolution.

Hazardous Tree Assessment
Banteay Chhmar temple and its immediate environment is a good example of the symbiosis or link between nature, culture and the local community. The temple has a natural setting; a long history of culture and the natural environment and it is still the focus of the local inhabitants today. However some of the trees are seriously threatening the built structures and need to be removed.

An assessment of all the trees within the temple complex was also conducted by the WMF team in 2004. The hazard trees are predominantly the Tetrameles Nudiflora commonly refer as the “Fromagere”. These trees usually grow on the stone monuments themselves, forming exotic root patterns. The trees are however, extremely dangerous as they have little structural integrity once they reach their full growth and they are apt to shed their large hanger branches causing extensive damage to the temple structures.

Risk maps of all the trees within the complex have been prepared by the WMF team and the team has identified the priority levels of tree management throughout the temple.

Site Security Assessment
There are twenty five Heritage Guards under the control of the Ministry of the Interior, who are responsible for site security. Their responsibilities include protecting the site from looting, and looking after the temporary emergency support systems carried out at site. Banteay Chhmar is classified as one of the most endangered Khmer temples. It has been a target for extensive looting of its historic artefacts. The temple and its surroundings were occupied by the warring forces during the recent period of civil war and used as a battlefield. During this period and immediately afterwards several sculpted pieces, including a large section of the bas relief wall were smuggled out of the country, with little chance of ever recovering them. Partly as a result of a major theft in Banteay Chhmar, governments worldwide have enacted legislation banning the sale and export of Khmer artefacts.

Photographic Archive
There is a fairly extensive photographic archive of Banteay Chhmar slowly building up but it has not been formalised. There should also be a stock of early photographs in the EFEO archive house at their head office in Siem Reap.

A Missing Set of Toes Location Unknown

Back to top